A large portion of the elderly population suffers from a chronic decline in blood supply to the brain. In most people this decline leads to the gradual formation of brain atrophy, accompanied by a slow decline in cognitive functions which characterizes the normal elderly state. “Minimal cognitive impairment” is characterized by a certain threshold of tissue loss and cognitive malfunction, while “dementia” is characterized by a further decline that crosses a pathological threshold. Dementia patients suffer from varying degrees of memory loss, cognitive dysfunctions, and behavioral disturbances, leading in the terminally ill patient to a fully dependent state with profound personal dysfunction, as well as socioeconomic burden on the patient's family and community.
Vascular dementia (VaD) is secondary in prevalence to Alzheimer's disease (Roman G C et al. (1991); all references cited hereinbelow). The prevalence of VaD increases with age and ranges from 1.0% at 55 years, 4.2% at 70 years, increasing to up to 6.7% at 85-90 years (Lobo A et al., Ott A et al., White L et al.). Based on an estimated overall prevalence of 2.7% in people 65 or older (Lobo A et al., Rocca W A et al.), there are expected to be about 2 million VaD patients in 2030 in the United States alone (Bachman D L et al.).
The cost for caring for this growing number of demented patients is increasing dramatically. The disorder represents an immense burden not only to patients, but also to their caregivers, the health care system, and to society at large. Recently, Sicras A et al. found that the overall yearly cost of care per VaD patient in Spain is about 22,000 Euro.
VaD is a heterogeneous disease entity characterized by several different vascular mechanisms and pathological changes in the brain. Subcortical VaD, which is responsible for about two-thirds of all progressive VaD cases (Chui H, Roman G C et al. (1993), is a relatively homogeneous subtype of the disease, incorporating small vessel arteriosclerosis as a primary vascular pathological etiology, lacunar infarcts and white matter lesions (leukoaraiosis) as primary types of brain lesions, and subcortical areas as the primary location of the disease (Erkinjuntti et al.). The arteriosclerotic process leads to a progressive narrowing of the lumen of subcortical small blood vessels with a consequent long lasting reduction of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and chronic ischemia of the surrounding parenchyma (Pantoni L et al.). This diffuse chronic ischemia of the subcortical white matter results in rarefaction of the nerve fibers' myelin sheaths and to a reactive gliosis (Brun A et al.), reduced brain metabolism (Capizzano A A et al.) and loss of function, a phenomena called leukoaraiosis, which is best viewed as white matter hyperintensities in T2/Flair MRI (Hatchinski V C et al.).
It is now well accepted that hypoperfusion plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of leukoaraiosis and the consequent decline in cognitive functions (Meyer J S et al., Mortel K F et al., Yoshikawa T et al., Zimny A et al.). Markus H S et al. and O'Sullivan M et al. demonstrated using perfusion based MRI that leukoaraiotic white matter lesions are characterized by reduced CBF. Similar results have been obtained with positron emission tomography (PET) (Meyer E et al.). Moreover, there is a clear correlation between the extent and the severity of the subcortical leukoaraiosis and the underlying degree of cerebral hypoperfusion (Kawamura J et al.).
Recent large scale prospective studies (for a review see Schmidt R et al. (2007)) indicated that leukoaraiosis progresses over time and that its extent at baseline is an important predictor for the subsequent rate of lesion progression (Enzinger C et al., Schmidt R et al. (2003)). For instance, individuals with early confluent and confluent leukoaraiotic changes tend to progress rapidly. Moreover, it is now well recognized that the progression of leukoaraiosis closely relates to the rate of cognitive decline (Garde E et al., Schmidt R et al. (2005)), and especially the decline in executive functions (Bombois S et al., Markus H S et al.), a hallmark of VaD cognitive impairment.
Thus, in subcortical VaD there is a clear pathophysiological cascade in which arteriosclerosis of the subcortical small vessels leads to progressive hypoperfusion and long lasting ischemia, which eventually leads to white matter damage, expanding leukoaraiosis, and gradual cognitive decline. A therapy aimed at treating the underlying hypoperfusion state is expected to slow down, stop, and even improve the leukoaraiotic state and the patient's cognitive status. Indeed, in a small (n=8) group of VaD patients treated for 12 months with Rivastigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Lojkowska et al. demonstrated an increase in regional CBF (especially in the brain frontal regions) accompanied with stabilization of the cognitive function in comparison to non-treated control patients, in whom decreases in both CBF and scores on neuropsychological tests were observed.
US Patent Application Publication 2007/0083245 to Lamensdorf et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes apparatus for treatment, including one or more electrodes, configured to be applied to a site of a subject, and adverse cerebrovascular condition treatment functionality. The functionality comprises a control unit configured to drive the one or more electrodes to apply electrical stimulation to the site during a plurality of stimulation periods which includes at least first and last stimulation periods, set an inter-period interval between initiation of the first stimulation period and initiation of the last stimulation period to be at least 24 hours, and configure the stimulation during the first and last stimulation periods to induce at least one neuroprotective occurrence selected from the group consisting of: an increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF) of the subject, and a release of one or more neuroprotective substances. The site is selected from the group consisting of: a sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG), a greater palatine nerve, a lesser palatine nerve, a sphenopalatine nerve, a communicating branch between a maxillary nerve and an SPG, an otic ganglion, an afferent fiber going into the otic ganglion, an efferent fiber going out of the otic ganglion, an infraorbital nerve, a vidian nerve, a greater superficial petrosal nerve, and a lesser deep petrosal nerve.
The '245 publication describes an in vivo experiment assessing the effect of long-term rehabilitative SPG stimulation, measured in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. A rat tMCAO model of stroke was used to evaluate the benefits, including neuromuscular, motility, cognitive, somatosensory, somatomotor, infarct volume benefits, of rehabilitative SPG stimulation using the techniques described therein. The stimulation was applied for seven consecutive days beginning at 24 hours after reperfusion in the tMCAO model. In summary, in the experiment, SPG stimulation initiated 24 hours after tMCAO had advantageous results for all five parameter groups evaluated. In addition, SPG stimulation increased the number of neurons in all regions counted.
PCT Publication WO 01/85094 and US Patent Application Publications 2004/0015068 and 2004/0210269 to Shalev and Gross, which are assigned to the assignee of the present patent application and are incorporated herein by reference, describe apparatus for modifying a property of a brain of a patient, including electrodes applied to a sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG) or a neural tract originating in or leading to the SPG. A control unit drives the electrodes to apply a current capable of inducing (a) an increase in permeability of a blood-brain barrier (BBB) of the patient, (b) a change in cerebral blood flow of the patient, and/or (c) an inhibition of parasympathetic activity of the SPG.
PCT Publication WO 03/105658 to Shalev and US Patent Application Publication 2006/0020299 in the US national stage thereof, both of which are assigned to the assignee of the present application and are incorporated herein by reference, describe a method for treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). The method includes stimulating a sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG) of a subject so that the concentration of a substance in a brain of the subject changes. The publications also describe stimulating sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG)-related tissue of the subject by applying an electrical signal to the SPG-related tissue, and configuring the stimulation so as to cause an increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF) of the subject, so as to treat the AD.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,853,858 to Shalev, which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes an apparatus for delivering a Non Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) supplied to a body of a subject for delivery to at least a portion of a central nervous system (CNS) of the subject via a systemic blood circulation of the subject. The apparatus includes a stimulator adapted to stimulate at least one site of the subject, so as to cause an increase in passage of the NSAID from the systemic blood circulation across a blood brain barrier (BBB) of the subject to the portion of the CNS, during at least a portion of the time that the NSAID is present in the blood, the site selected from the group consisting of: a sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG), an anterior ethmoidal nerve, a posterior ethmoidal nerve, a communicating branch between an anterior ethmoidal nerve and a retro-orbital branch of an SPG, a communicating branch between a posterior ethmoidal nerve and a retro-orbital branch of an SPG, a greater palatine nerve, a lesser palatine nerve, a sphenopalatine nerve, a communicating branch between a maxillary nerve and an SPG, a nasopalatine nerve, a posterior nasal nerve, an infraorbital nerve, an otic ganglion, an afferent fiber going into the otic ganglion, an efferent fiber going out of the otic ganglion, a vidian nerve, a greater superficial petrosal nerve, and a lesser deep petrosal nerve.
US Patent Application Publication 2004/0220644 to Shalev et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes a method for treating a subject, including positioning at least one electrode at at least one site of the subject, such as the SPG, for less than about 3 hours, applying an electrical current to the site of the subject, and configuring the current to increase cerebral blood flow (CBF) of the subject, so as to treat a condition of the subject.
US Patent Application Publication 2003/0176898 to Gross et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes apparatus for treating a condition of an eye of a subject, comprising a stimulator adapted to stimulate at least one site of the subject, such as the SPG, so as to treat the eye condition.
US Patent Application Publication 2005/0159790 to Shalev, which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes a method for facilitating a diagnosis of a condition of a subject, including applying a current to a site of the subject, such as the SPG, and configuring the current to increase conductance of molecules from brain tissue of the subject through a blood brain barrier (BBB) of the subject into a systemic blood circulation of the subject. The method also includes sensing a quantity of the molecules from a site outside of the brain of the subject, following initiation of application of the current.
US Patent Application Publication 2005/0266099 to Shalev, which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes a method for modifying a property of a brain of a patient including presenting an odorant to an air passage of the patient, the odorant having been selected for presentation to the air passage because it is such as to increase conductance of molecules from a systemic blood circulation of the patient through a blood brain barrier (BBB) of the brain into brain tissue of the patient. The molecules are selected from the group consisting of: a pharmacological agent, a therapeutic agent, an endogenous agent, and an agent for facilitating a diagnostic procedure.
PCT Publication WO 04/010923 to Gross et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes a chemical agent delivery system, including a chemical agent supplied to a body of a subject for delivery to a site in a central nervous system of said subject via blood of said subject; and a stimulator for stimulating parasympathetic fibers associated with the SPG, thereby rendering a blood brain barrier (BBB) of said subject permeable to said chemical agent during at least a portion of the time that said chemical agent is present in said blood.
PCT Publication WO 04/043218 to Gross et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes apparatus for treating a subject, including (a) a stimulation device, adapted to be implanted in a vicinity of a site selected from the list consisting of: a SPG and a neural tract originating in or leading to the SPG; and (b) a connecting element, coupled to the stimulation device, and adapted to be passed through at least a portion of a greater palatine canal of the subject.
PCT Publication WO 04/045242 to Shalev, which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes apparatus for treating a condition of an ear of a subject, comprising a stimulator adapted to stimulate at least one site of the subject, such as the SPG, at a level sufficient to treat the ear condition.
PCT Publication WO 05/030025 to Shalev et al., which is assigned to the assignee of the present application and is incorporated herein by reference, describes apparatus for treating a subject, including an elongated generally rigid support element having a length of at least 1.8 cm, and having a distal end. The apparatus also includes one or more electrodes fixed to the support element in a vicinity of the distal end thereof, and configured to be positioned in a vicinity of a site of the subject, such as the SPG, when the support element is inserted into a body of the subject, such that a portion of the support element remains outside of the body. The apparatus further includes a control unit, coupled to the support element, and adapted to drive the electrodes to apply an electrical current to the site, and to configure the current to increase cerebral blood flow (CBF) of the subject, so as to treat a condition of the subject.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,526,318 to Ansarinia and related PCT Publication WO 01/97905 to Ansarinia, which are incorporated herein by reference, describe a method for the suppression or prevention of various medical conditions, including pain, movement disorders, autonomic disorders, and neuropsychiatric disorders. The method includes positioning an electrode on or proximate to at least one of the patient's SPG, sphenopalatine nerves, or vidian nerves, and activating the electrode to apply an electrical signal to such nerve. In a further embodiment for treating the same conditions, the electrode used is activated to dispense a medication solution or analgesic to such nerve.
The following patent application publications, all of which are assigned to the assignee of the present application and are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest: WO 03/090599, WO 04/010923, WO 04/043218, WO 04/044947, WO 04/045242, WO 04/043217, WO 04/043334, WO 05/030025, WO 05/030118, and US 2004/0220644.
The following patents and patent application publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference, may be of interest: U.S. Pat. No. 5,756,071 to Mattern et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,752,515 to Jolesz et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,725,471 and 6,086,525 to Davey et al., PCT Publication WO 02/32504 to Zanger et al., US Patent Application Publication 2003/0050527 to Fox et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,415,184 to Ishikawa et al., PCT Publications WO 03/084591, WO 03/020350, WO 03/000310, WO 02/068031, and WO 02/068029 to Djupesland, US Patent Application Publication 2003/0079742 to Giroux, U.S. Pat. No. 6,405,079 to Ansarinia, U.S. Pat. No. 6,432,986 to Levin and PCT Publication WO 99/03473 to Levin, U.S. Pat. No. 6,491,940 to Levin, US Patent Application 2003/0133877 to Levin, and PCT Publication WO 00/44432 to Levin, and US Patent Application 2001/0004644 to Levin and PCT Publication WO 01/43733 to Levin,
Wilner A, in an article entitled, “Who is at risk for post-stroke dementia?” Neurology Reviews.com Vol. 11, No. 2 (February 2003), which is incorporated herein by reference, describes the results of a study analyzing risk factors for survival of a stroke and post-stroke dementia.
Hotta H et al., in an article entitled, “Effects of stimulating the nucleus basalis of Meynert on blood flow and delayed neuronal death following transient ischemia in rat cerebral cortes,” Jap J Phys 52:383-393 (2002), which is incorporated herein by reference, report that stimulation of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM) in the rat was accompanied by vasodilatation and increase in cortical blood flow. They suggest that NBM-originating vasodilative activation can protect the ischemia-induced delayed death of cortical neurons by preventing a blood flow decrease in widespread cortices.
Reis D J et al., in an article entitled, “Electrical stimulation of cerebellar fastigial nucleus reduces ischemic infarction elicited by middle cerebral artery occlusion in rat,” J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11(5):810-8 (1991), which is incorporated herein by reference, report that electrical stimulation of the cerebellar fastigial nucleus (FN) profoundly increases cerebral blood flow via a cholinergic mechanism. Utilizing the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model, they demonstrated that one hour of electrical stimulation of the FN has the capacity to substantially reduce the infarct size at the rim of the cortex dorsal and ventral to the infarction, and medially within the thalamus and striatum corresponding to the penumbral zone. They conclude that excitation of an intrinsic system in brain represented in the rostral FN has the capacity to substantially reduce an ischemic infarction.
Matsui T et al., in an article entitled, “The effects of cervical spinal cord stimulation (cSCS) on experimental stroke,” Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 12(4 Pt 2):726-32 (1989), which is incorporated herein by reference, report that cSCS increases regional cerebral blood flow, and, in a cat middle cerebral artery occlusion model (MCAO), reduced the rate of death within 24 hours after MCAO.
Segher O et al., in an article entitled, “Spinal cord stimulation reducing infract volume in model of focal cerebral ischemia in rats,” J Neurosurg 99(1):131-137 (2003), which is incorporated herein by reference, demonstrate that spinal cord stimulation increases cerebral blood flow in rats and significantly reduces stroke volume, suggesting that spinal cord stimulation could be used for treatment and prevention of stroke.
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